To delineate the in vivo role of different costimulatory signals in activating and expanding highly functional virus-specific cytotoxic CD8+ T cells, we designed synTacs, infusible biologics which recapitulate antigen-specific T-cell activation signals delivered by antigen-presenting cells. We constructed synTacs consisting of dimeric Fc-domain scaffolds linking CD28- or 4-1BB-specific ligands to HLA-A2 MHC molecules covalently-tethered to HIV- or CMV-derived peptides. Treatment of HIV-infected donor PBMCs with synTacs bearing HIV- or CMV-derived peptides induced vigorous and selective ex vivo expansion of highly functional HIV- and/or CMV-specific CD8+ T cells, respectively, with potent anti-viral activities. Intravenous injection of HIV or CMV-specific synTacs into immunodeficient mice intrasplenically engrafted with donor PBMCs markedly and selectively expanded HIV-specific (32-fold) or CMV-specific (46-fold) human CD8+ T cells populating their spleens, respectively. Notably, these expanded HIV or CMV-specific CD8+ T cells directed potent in vivo suppression of HIV or CMV infections, respectively, in the humanized mice providing strong rationale for consideration of synTac-based approaches as a therapeutic strategy to cure HIV and treat CMV and other viral infections. The synTac platform flexibility supports facile delineation of in vivo effects of different costimulatory signals on patient-derived virus-specific CD8+ T cells, enabling optimization of individualized therapies, including HIV cure strategies.
Mengyan Li, Scott J. Garforth, Kaitlyn E. O’Connor, Hang Su, Danica M. Lee, Alev Celikgil, Rodolfo J. Chaparro, Ronald D. Seidel, R. Brad Jones, Ravit Arav-Boger, Steven C. Almo, Harris Goldstein
Persons living with HIV (PLWH) are at increased risk of tuberculosis (TB). HIV-associated TB is often the result of recent infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) followed by rapid progression to disease. Alveolar macrophages (AM) are the first cells of the innate immune system that engage Mtb, but how HIV and antiretroviral therapy (ART) impact on the anti-mycobacterial response of AM is not known. To investigate the impact of HIV and ART on the transcriptomic and epigenetic response of AM to Mtb, we obtained AM by bronchoalveolar lavage from 20 PLWH receiving ART, 16 control subjects who were HIV-free (HC), and 14 subjects who received ART as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV infection. Following in-vitro challenge with Mtb, AM from each group displayed overlapping but distinct profiles of significantly up- and down-regulated genes in response to Mtb. Comparatively, AM isolated from both PLWH and PrEP subjects presented a substantially weaker transcriptional response. In addition, AM from HC subjects challenged with Mtb responded with pronounced chromatin accessibility changes while AM obtained from PLWH and PrEP subjects displayed no significant changes in their chromatin state. Collectively, these results revealed a stronger adverse effect of ART than HIV on the epigenetic landscape and transcriptional responsiveness of AM.
Wilian Correa-Macedo, Vinicius M. Fava, Marianna Orlova, Pauline Cassart, Ron Olivenstein, Joaquín Sanz, Yong Zhong Xu, Anne Dumaine, Renata H.M. Sindeaux, Vania Yotova, Alain Pacis, Josée Girouard, Barbara Kalsdorf, Christoph Lange, Jean-Pierre Routy, Luis B. Barreiro, Erwin Schurr
Primary HIV-1 infection can be classified into six Fiebig stages based on virological and serological laboratory testing, whereas simian-HIV (SHIV) infection in nonhuman primates (NHPs) is defined in time post-infection, making it difficult to extrapolate NHP experiments to the clinics. We identified and extensively characterized the Fiebig-equivalent stages in NHPs challenged intrarectally or intravenously with SHIVAD8-EO. During the first month post-challenge, intrarectally challenged monkeys were up to 1 week delayed in progression through stages. However, regardless of the challenge route, stages I–II predominated before, and stages V–VI predominated after, peak viremia. Decrease in lymph node (LN) CD4+ T cell frequency and rise in CD8+ T cells occurred at stage V. LN virus-specific CD8+ T cell responses, dominated by degranulation and TNF, were first detected at stage V and increased at stage VI. A similar late elevation in follicular CXCR5+ CD8+ T cells occurred, consistent with higher plasma CXCL13 levels at these stages. LN SHIVAD8-EO RNA+ cells were present at stage II, but appeared to decline at stage VI when virions accumulated in follicles. Fiebig-equivalent staging of SHIVAD8-EO infection revealed concordance of immunological events between intrarectal and intravenous infection despite different infection progressions, and can inform comparisons of NHP studies with clinical data.
Joana Dias, Giulia Fabozzi, Kylie March, Mangaiarkarasi Asokan, Cassandra G. Almasri, Jonathan Fintzi, Wanwisa Promsote, Yoshiaki Nishimura, John-Paul Todd, Jeffrey D. Lifson, Malcolm A. Martin, Lucio Gama, Constantinos Petrovas, Amarendra Pegu, John R. Mascola, Richard A. Koup
BACKGROUND. Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-modified T cells have emerged as a novel approach to treat malignant tumors. This strategy has also been proposed for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. We have developed a broadly neutralizing antibody (bNAb)-derived CAR-T cell therapy which can exerted specific cytotoxic activity against HIV-1-infected cells. METHODS. We conducted an open-label trial of the safety, side-effect profile, pharmacokinetic properties, and antiviral activity of bNAb-derived CAR-T cell therapy in HIV-1-infected individuals who were undergoing analytical interruption of antiretroviral therapy (ART). RESULTS. A total of 14 participants completed only a single administration of bNAb-derived CAR-T cells. CAR-T administration was safe and well tolerated. Six participants discontinued ART, and viremia rebound occurred in all of them, with a 5.3-week median time. Notably, the cell-associated viral RNA and intact proviruses decreased significantly after CAR-T treatment. Analyses of HIV-1 variants before or after CAR-T administration suggested that CAR-T cells exerted pressure on rebound viruses, resulting in a selection of viruses with less diversity and mutations against CAR-T-mediated cytotoxicity. CONCLUSIONS. No safety concerns were identified with adoptive transfer of bNAb-derived CAR-T cells. They reduced viral reservoir. All the rebounds were due to preexisting or emergence of viral escape mutations. TRIAL REGISTRATION. ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT03240328. FUNDING. Ministry of Science and Technology of China, National Natural Science Foundation of China, and Department of Science and Technology of Guangdong Province.
Bingfeng Liu, Wanying Zhang, Baijin Xia, Shuliang Jing, Yingying Du, Fan Zou, Rong Li, Lijuan Lu, Shaozhen Chen, Yonghong Li, Qifei Hu, Yingtong Lin, Yiwen Zhang, Zhangping He, Xu Zhang, Xiejie Chen, Tao Peng, Xiaoping Tang, Weiping Cai, Ting Pan, Linghua Li, Hui Zhang
BACKGROUND. VRC01, a potent, broadly-neutralizing monoclonal antibody, inhibits simian-HIV infection in animal models. HVTN 104 assessed VRC01 safety and pharmacokinetics in humans. We extend the clinical evaluation to determine intravenous-infused VRC01 distribution and protective function at mucosal sites of HIV-1 entry. METHODS. Healthy, HIV-1-uninfected men (n=7) and women (n=5) receiving VRC01 every two months provided mucosal and serum samples once, 4-13 days post-infusion. Eleven male and 8 female HIV-seronegative volunteers provided untreated control samples. VRC01 levels were measured in serum, secretions and tissue, and HIV-1 inhibition was determined in tissue explants. RESULTS. Median VRC01 levels were quantifiable in serum (96.2 µg/ml or 1.3 pg/ng protein), rectal tissue (0.11 pg/ng protein), rectal secretions (0.13 pg/ng protein), vaginal tissue (0.1 pg/ng protein) and cervical secretions (0.44 pg/ng protein) from all recipients. VRC01/IgG ratios in male serum correlated with those in paired rectal tissue (r=0.893, P=0.012) and rectal secretions (r=0.9643, P=0.003). Ex vivo HIV-1Bal26 challenge infected 4/21 rectal explants from VRC01-infused versus 20/22 from controls (P=0.005); HIV-1 Du422.1 infected 20/21 rectal explants of VRC01 recipients and 12/12 from controls (P=0.639). HIV-1Bal26 infected 0/14 vaginal explants of VRC01 recipients compared to 23/28 control explants (P=0.003). CONCLUSION. Intravenous VRC01 distributes into the female genital and male rectal mucosa and retains anti-HIV-1 functionality, inhibiting a highly neutralization-sensitive but not a highly-resistant HIV-1 strain in mucosal tissue. These findings lend insight into VRC01 mucosal infiltration and provide perspective to in vivo protective efficacy. FUNDING. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
Rena D. Astronomo, Maria P. Lemos, Sandeep R. Narpala, Julie Czartoski, Lamar Ballweber Fleming, Kelly E. Seaton, Madhu Prabhakaran, Yunda Huang, Yiwen Lu, Katharine Westerberg, Lily Zhang, Mary K. Gross, John Hural, Hong-Van Tieu, Lindsey R. Baden, Scott Hammer, Ian Frank, Christina Ochsenbauer, Nicole Grunenberg, Julie E. Ledgerwood, Kenneth Mayer, Georgia Tomaras, Adrian B. McDermott, M. Juliana McElrath
T cells are involved in control of COVID-19, but limited knowledge is available on the relationship between antigen-specific T cell response and disease severity. Here, we assessed the magnitude, function and phenotype of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4 T cells in 95 hospitalized COVID-19 patients (38 of them being HIV-1 and/or tuberculosis (TB) co-infected) and 38 non-COVID-19 patients, using flow cytometry. We showed that SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4 T cell attributes, rather than magnitude, associates with disease severity, with severe disease being characterized by poor polyfunctional potential, reduced proliferation capacity and enhanced HLA-DR expression. Moreover, HIV-1 and TB co-infection skewed the SARS-CoV-2 T cell response. HIV-1 mediated CD4 T cell depletion associated with suboptimal T cell and humoral immune responses to SARS-CoV-2; and a decrease in the polyfunctional capacity of SARS-CoV-2-specific CD4 T cells was observed in COVID-19 patients with active TB. Our results also revealed that COVID-19 patients displayed reduced frequency of Mtb-specific CD4 T cells, with possible implications for TB disease progression. There results corroborate the important role of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells in COVID-19 pathogenesis and support the concept of altered T cell functions in patients with severe disease.
Catherine Riou, Elsa Du Bruyn, Cari Stek, Remy Daroowala, Rene T. Goliath, Fatima Abrahams, Qonita Said-Hartley, Brian W. Allwood, Nei-Yuan Hsiao, Katalin A. Wilkinson, Cecilia S. Lindestam Arlehamn, Alessandro Sette, Sean Wasserman, Robert J. Wilkinson
Restriction of HIV-1 replication in elite controllers (ECs) is frequently attributed to T cell–mediated immune responses, while the specific contribution of innate immune cells is less clear. Here, we demonstrate an upregulation of the host long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) MIR4435-2HG in primary myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) from ECs. Elevated expression of this lncRNA in mDCs was associated with a distinct immunometabolic profile, characterized by increased oxidative phosphorylation and glycolysis activities in response to TLR3 stimulation. Using functional assays, we show that MIR4435-2HG directly influenced the metabolic state of mDCs, likely through epigenetic mechanisms involving H3K27ac enrichment at an intronic enhancer in the RPTOR gene locus, the main component of the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). Together, these results suggest a role of MIR4435-2HG for enhancing immunometabolic activities of mDCs in ECs through targeted epigenetic modifications of a member of the mTOR signaling pathway.
Ciputra Adijaya Hartana, Yelizaveta Rassadkina, Ce Gao, Enrique Martin-Gayo, Bruce D. Walker, Mathias Lichterfeld, Xu G. Yu
Chronic HIV-1 infection is generally characterized by progressive CD4+ T cell depletion due to direct and bystander death that is closely associated with persistent HIV-1 replication and an inflammatory environment in vivo. The mechanisms underlying the loss of CD4+ T cells in patients with chronic HIV-1 infection are incompletely understood. In this study, we simultaneously monitored caspase-1 and caspase-3 activation in circulating CD4+ T cells, which revealed that pyroptotic and apoptotic CD4+ T cells are distinct cell populations with different phenotypic characteristics. Levels of pyroptosis and apoptosis in CD4+ T cells were significantly elevated during chronic HIV-1 infection, and decreased following effective antiretroviral therapy. Notably, the occurrence of pyroptosis was further confirmed by elevated gasdermin D activation in lymph nodes of HIV-1–infected individuals. Mechanistically, caspase-1 activation closely correlated with the inflammatory marker expression and was shown to occur through NLRP3 inflammasome activation driven by virus-dependent and/or -independent ROS production, while caspase-3 activation in CD4+ T cells was more closely related to T cell activation status. Hence, our findings show that NLRP3-dependent pyroptosis plays an essential role in CD4+ T cell loss in HIV-1–infected patients and implicate pyroptosis signaling as a target for anti–HIV-1 treatment.
Chao Zhang, Jin-Wen Song, Hui-Huang Huang, Xing Fan, Lei Huang, Jian-Ning Deng, Bo Tu, Kun Wang, Jing Li, Ming-Ju Zhou, Cui-Xian Yang, Qi-Wen Zhao, Tao Yang, Li-Feng Wang, Ji-Yuan Zhang, Ruo-Nan Xu, Yan-Mei Jiao, Ming Shi, Feng Shao, Rafick-Pierre Sékaly, Fu-Sheng Wang
To define the contribution of CD8+ T cell responses to control of SIV reactivation during and following antiretroviral therapy (ART), we determined the effect of long-term CD8+ T cell depletion using a rhesusized anti-CD8β monoclonal antibody (mAb) on barcoded SIVmac239 dynamics on stable ART and after ART cessation in Rhesus Macaques (RMs). Among the RMs with full CD8+ T cell depletion in both blood and tissue, there were no significant differences in the frequency of viral blips in plasma, the number of SIV RNA+ cells and the average number of RNA copies/infected cell in tissue, and levels of cell-associated SIV RNA and DNA in blood and tissue relative to control-treated RM during ART. Upon ART cessation, both CD8+ T cell-depleted and control RMs rebounded in <12 days with no difference in the time to viral rebound, or in either the number or growth rate of rebounding SIVmac239M barcode clonotypes. However, effectively CD8+ T cell-depleted RMs showed a stable ~2-log increase in post-ART plasma viremia relative to controls. These results indicate that while potent anti-viral CD8+ T cell responses can develop during ART-suppressed SIV infection, these responses effectively intercept post-ART SIV rebound only after systemic viral replication, too late to limit reactivation frequency or the early spread of reactivating SIV reservoirs.
Afam A. Okoye, Derick D. Duell, Yoshinori Fukazawa, Benjamin Varco-Merth, Alejandra Marenco, Hannah Behrens, Talent Morgan Chaunzwa, Andrea N. Selseth, Roxanne M. Gilbride, Jason Shao, Paul T. Edlefsen, Romas Geleziunas, Mykola Pinkevych, Miles P. Davenport, Kathleen Busman-Sahay, Michael D. Nekorchuk, Haesun Park, Jeremy V. Smedley, Michael K. Axthelm, Jacob D. Estes, Scott G. Hansen, Brandon F. Keele, Jeffery D. Lifson, Louis J. Picker
BACKGROUND. We performed a Phase I clinical trial that infused CCR5 gene edited CD4 T cells to determine how these T cells can better enable HIV cure strategies. METHODS. The trial addressed the method of zinc finger nuclease (ZFN) ex vivo delivery, whether CCR5 Δ32 heterozygotes preferentially benefit, the effect of CCR5 gene edited CD4 T cells on the HIV-specific T cell response, and the ability of infused CCR5 gene edited T cells to delay viral rebound during analytical treatment interruption. We enrolled 14 people living with HIV whose viral load was well controlled by antiretroviral therapy (ART). We measured time to viral rebound after ART withdrawal, persistence of CCR5-edited CD4 T cells, and whether infusion of 10 billion CCR5-edited CD4 T cells augmented the HIV-specific immune response. RESULTS. Infusion of the CD4 T cells was well tolerated with no serious adverse events. Modest delay to the time of viral rebound was observed relative to historical controls; however, three of 14 individuals of which two were CCR5 Δ32 heterozygotes appeared to regain control of viremia before ultimately rebounding. Interestingly, only these individuals had significant restoration of HIV-specific CD8 T cell responses. Immune escape to one of these re-invigorated responses was observed at viral recrudescence, illustrating a direct link between viral control and enhanced CD8 T cell responses. CONCLUSION. These findings demonstrate how CCR5 gene edited CD4 T cell infusion could aid HIV cure strategies by augmenting pre-existing HIV-specific immune responses. TRIAL REGISTRATION. ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02388594 FUNDING. R01AI104400 (C.H.J.), UM1AI126620 (J.L.R.) funded by NIAID, NIDA, NIMH, and NINDS; T32 grant AI007632 (C.R.M.)
Pablo Tebas, Julie K. Jadlowsky, Pamela A. Shaw, Lifeng Tian, Erin Esparza, Andrea Brennan, Sukyung Kim, Soe Yu Naing, Max W. Richardson, Ashley N. Vogel, Colby R. Maldini, Hong Kong, Xiaojun Liu, Simon F. Lacey, Anya M. Bauer, Felicity Mampe, Lee P. Richman, Gary Lee, Dale Ando, Bruce L. Levine, David L. Porter, Yangbing Zhao, Don L. Siegel, Katharine J. Bar, Carl H. June, James L. Riley